Part IV
Execution of the Plan

Section I -- Rehearsals

1. Amphibious training of the 1st Infantry Division and 2nd Armored Division was conducted in the Arzew area, while the 3rd Infantry Division carried out shore to shore training in the Bizerta-Tunis area. The 82nd Airborne Division moved from Casablanca to its training area near Oudja, and finally to its staging area near Kariouan, Tunisia.

2. All Army units comprising the assault forces were moved forward to staging areas by June 22, the date of the arrival from the United States of the 45th Division embarked in combat loaded transports.

3. The period 22 June - 4 July was utilized in carrying out rehearsals of the assault landing and in special training of task groups. This special training included operations by certain escort vessels with the British submarines designated as navigational beacons, training of AMs, PCs and SCs in the operations of Control Vessels, and training of various types of Support Craft.

4. In addition to this brief training period, the time was utilized for the installation of necessary radio equipment, special signaling devices, voice projection apparatus, etc.

5. Rehearsals were held at selected beaches near the ports of embarkation. In the case of the CENT and DIME Forces, this involved the movement to sea of the loaded transports, escorts and gunfire support ships. Due to the proximity of enemy aircraft and enemy submarines, these night operations were undertaken at considerable risk. Selected units of each RCT were landed on the rehearsal beaches in accordance with the scheme of maneuver planned for the actual assault. These rehearsals were not full scale landings.

6. The 3rd Infantry Division embarked in the landing ships and landing craft assigned for the operation and carried out a number of night shore to shore exercises in the Bizerta area.

7. Upon the completion of the rehearsals, all vehicles that had been landed were sent back to the concentration areas for re-waterproofing and reloading aboard ship.

8. Troops of the 45th Infantry Division were placed ashore for five days' reconditioning training. Upon the completion of the rehearsals, troops of all divisions were assembled in staging areas for final loading in assault transports and craft. The staging areas had been selected by the Army with relation to available bivouac areas close to loading ports selected by the Navy.

9. The rehearsals for the Sicilian invasion were hurriedly planned because of the shortage of time available and were at best a "dry run" on reduced scale. To ensure maximum benefit of rehearsals, adequate time should be available for detailed planning in order that the exercise may simulate as nearly as possible the actual assault. Individual RCTs should land as units prior to the full scale landing of the division. In the latter case it should be carried out in such manner as to require complete unloading of a limited number of ships or craft in the execution of the plan of attack of certain RCTs. This completeness is particularly desirable in order to give the Shore Party, Beach Party and boat crews a full scale workout. Token rehearsals invariably stop short of the critical phase of the landing when beaches become heaped with supplies, boats are disabled, and the Army supply system is in danger of breakdown. Full scale unloading during rehearsals would bring the beach organizations face to face with their real problems and would permit corrective measures to be taken before the actual assault. In planning such full scale rehearsals the following must be provided for:

   1. replacements or repair of boats and craft lost or damaged during the rehearsal

   2. re-waterproofing of all vehicles landed during rehearsal

   3. adequate time to reload ships and craft for the assault

   4. adequate time to hold critiques after the rehearsal, make necessary changes to plans and distribute same to forces involved.

Section II -- Convoys and Routing

1. For the initial assault on the island of Sicily, over six hundred ships and landing craft were allocated to the Naval Commander, Western Task Force. Of this total, one hundred and thirty

warships, consisting of cruisers, destroyers, PCs, YMSs, SCs were available to escort, covering and support duties. Three hundred and twenty-four ships and landing craft, consisting of combat loaders (APAs, AKAs, XAPs, and APs), LSTs, LCI(L)s, and LCTs, were made available for loading and transporting assault troops and necessary assault weapons, of the Seventh Army, from the mounting and staging ports in North Africa to the CENT, DIME, and JOSS Attack areas on the South coast of Sicily. The remainder of the vessels allocated comprised PT Boats, Air Sea Rescue Boats, Minelayers, Landing Craft Gun and Flak, and fleet tugs. There were four Belgian LSI(S) of the Prince Leopold class and one British monitor.
2. Oran was the staging port for the combat-loaded Forty-fifth Division because that port was under the operating control of American Naval Command, the combat loaders, which brought this Division from the United States, could be accomodated there, and because it was farthest removed from possible air attack. Bizerta and Tunis were the mounting ports for LSTs, LCI(L)s, and LCTs because those ports were large enough to accomodate the landing craft and were the North African ports located closest to the assault areas assigned to the Western Task Force. Sousse became the staging port for the LCI(L)s because the movement cleared Tunis of some of the traffic load and because the assault voyage was shortened for the embarked infantry. Algiers was the loading port for combat loaders of the DIME Force because Oran harbor became filled to capacity and Algiers was the only other port on the North African coast where large ships could be berthed.

3. In order to utilize escort ships to the fullest possible degree, ships were initially classified into four principal categories according to speed, operating range, and mounting and staging ports. In like manner the individual convoys were made up, first, to meet the same considerations and second, to provide for economy of aircraft fighter cover. The combat loaders were assigned to a convoy in two sections, originating from Oran and Algiers. LSTs mounted troops and armor in Bizerta and Tunis and sortied from those harbors at approximately the same time, to rendezvous in the Tunisian War Channel and to proceed Easterly together. LCI(L)s mounted in Tunis, staged through Sousse and departed from that port on D-l. This LCI(L) convoy then made junction with the LST convoy while enroute to an assigned Gozo Island landfall, prior to making the Approach to the assault areas. LCTs were sections of one convoy, the two sections respectively departing from Bizerta and Tunis and joining up in the War Channel, thence proceeding Eastward, via Cape Bon, South of Pantelleria and toward Malta holding to that course until 1700 on D-l when the convoy turned North into the Approach.

4. The maintenance of the military forces during operation HUSKY involved three naval phases. The first phase included all convoys moving to reach the assault area on D day. Phase two was the follow-up. It included all convoys moving to reach the assault area after D day and until the military forces comprising the Western Task Force was landed in Sicily, and, it likewise included the maintenance of those forces. Phase three involved troops additional to the assault forces of the Western Task Force which were moved into Sicily. Phase two was a continuing movement during the early stages of phase three.

5. All assault convoys were routed by Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, until they entered the area of operations assigned to the Western Task Force.

6. Convoy routes were chosen to meet the following considerations:

   1. That convoys should approach the attack areas during darkness and should arrive in the Initial Transport Areas in time to meet H hour.

   2. That convoys must be prepared to meet strong submarine, E-boat and air attacks and that mines might be encountered.

   3. That swept channels should be used wherever possible.

   4. That convoys should be within reach of the maximum air coverage throughout voyages.

   5. That routing should avoid mutual interference with other forces.

   6. That movements of ships support the "Cover" Plan.

   7. That wherein troops are crowded into landing craft, the time afloat should be reduced to a minimum compatible with other considerations,

   8. That a landfall rendezvous for ships and landing craft would give these vessels an accurate navigational fix.

7. These considerations were met as follows:

   1. That convoys should approach the attack areas during darkness and should arrive in the Initial Transport Areas in time to meet H hour.

Since H hour was set for 0245, the attack convoys were required to be in the Initial

Transport Areas at approximately H-3 .hour in order to carry out the assault landing on schedule.

Convoy speeds-of-advance used were thirteen knots for combat loaders, twelve and a half for LCIs, eight knots for LSTs, and six and a half for LCTs. The time of rendezvous of LST and LCI convoys off Gozo Island was 1600/D-l and the passage of the combat loaders through that point was on and after 1850 the same day. To meet this schedule, convoy NSF-1 left Oran on D-5 and was joined by the first section at Algiers on D-4. LSTs and LCTs sortied from Bizerta and Tunis on D-2. LCI convoys left the staging port of Sousse on D-l.

2. That convoys must be prepared to meet strong submarine, E-boat and air attack and that mines might be encountered.

   Task Force Commanders of DIME, CENT and JOSS Forces made provision in their orders to meet submarines and air attacks. Convoy routes were through swept channels wherever possible and enemy surface vessels attacks were guarded against by Covering Groups and Screening Groups.

3. That swept channels should be used wherever possible.

   Swept channels, other than harbor and port exits, included the Tunisian War Channel, the Gulf of Tunis Channel, a swept channel in the vicinity of Sousse, and swept areas in the vicinity of Pantellaria.

4. That convoys should be within reach of the maximum air coverage throughout voyages.

   Air cover was available during Phase I,

   1. off the Algerian and Tunisian coasts by aircraft of the Northwest African Coastal Air Force,

   2. in the Sicilian Strait by U.S. Air Corps S. E. fighters operating from Pantellaria and Lampedusa,

   3. in the vicinity of Malta and in the Malta Channel by RAF fighter squadrons operating from Malta. The maximum fighter cover was planned for convoys at dawn, dusk and during periods of moonlight.

   Air cover was planned during Phase II and Phase III,

   1. off the beaches, by aircraft operating from Malta, and, when possible, by twin engine fighters based in Tunisia;

   2. by aircraft operating from captured air fields in Sicily.

5. That routing should avoid mutual interference with other forces.

   In order to avoid mutual interference, convoys were scheduled as to approximate time of leaving mounting or staging ports, and were further scheduled as to arrival at points where there was urgent necessity for keeping clear of other shipping. Due to narrowness of the Tunisian War Channel, and in order to effect rendezvous of forces joining up, and to keep air forces informed of location of convoys, it was necessary to stipulate time of arrival off Bizerta, as well as to declare a speed over the ground in order to avoid overtaking while in the War Channel. In like manner, there was a time set for the landfall of LST convoys off Gozo Light and for the subsequent joining up of LCT convoys. The first section of NCF-1 was routed through the Gozo rendezvous at 1850 on D-l in order that it might follow closely behind the United Kingdom convoy KMF-18 and yet pass the North Gozo tangent in time to allow the second section to remain on an adequate schedule.

   One of the problems involving convoy routing was proper timing to prevent mutual interference. According to the first draft of the Convoy Plan, Second Section of NCF-1 (CTF 85) was scheduled to leave Oran on D-4, was to rendezvous with First Section NCF-1 to seaward of Algiers on D-3, and was to proceed Easterly behind the First Section NCF-1 at a distance of six miles. Expected speed of advance was thirteen knots. This was scheduled because British convoy KMF-18, at speed of 12V£ knots, was scheduled to be in advance of NCF-1 by a sufficient distance at Algiers that the overtaking NCF-1 convoy would still be thirty minutes of cruising time behind at the moment of passing Bizerta. This was provided in CinCMed HUSKY Orders in order to prevent interference in the Tunisian War Channel between convoys KMF-18, NCF-1 and the landing ship and landing carft convoys of CTF 86 which were making sortie from Bizerta shortly after dawn on D-2. Accordingly, KMF-18 planned to pass Bizerta at 0500 on D-2. A further benefit of this schedule was that it provided for economy of fighter cover over the area transversed.

   The convoy plans issued by CTF 81 and CTF 85, however, brought up the possibility of a night-time rendezvous off Algiers under the above plan, and, since night rendezvous are undesirable, CTF 81 requested that time of rendezvous at Algiers be moved up as necessary to permit

junction of the two sections of NCF-1 in daylight, preferably on D-4. This request necessitated the second section departing Oran on D-5.

In the execution of the changed plan, the net result of this request by CTF 81 was twofold. After junction of first and second sections NCF-1, onward routing from Algiers was altered in order to prevent interference between convoys NCF-1 and KMF-18. The speed and speed-of-advance of NCF-1 was reduced below thirteen knots, thereby causing increased concern over the possibilities of submarine attack. Commander, Western Naval Task Force, sent orders to the Officer in Tactical Command to increase speed. Second, this late hour change in the speed of advance of NCF-1, and in the routing of that convoy, affected the North African Air Force plans to some extent. Planes, ordered to cover the sortie and initial passage of NCF-1 Easterly from Algiers, were late in making contact with that convoy.

6. That movements of ships support the "Cover" Plan.

   The movements of Landing Craft Convoys were in the direction of Malta, and the routing of the combat loaders was in the general direction of Tripoli, with the object of deception of the enemy as to the destination, date and intentions, generally, of our forces. In this manner was the routing of American ships and craft coordinated with the routing of ships and craft of the Eastern Task Force in order to carry out the conditions of the Cover Plan.

7. That wherein troops are crowded into landing craft, the time afloat should be reduced to a minimum compatible with the other considerations given.

   Landing Craft (infantry), carried troops from Bizerta and Tunis to Sousse on D-4. These troops remained ashore until the afternoon of D-2 and then reembarked for the assault flight. By this means, the time of troop carry, under crowded conditions, was reduced to a minimum in this instance. Due to the scarcity of large harbors in Northwest Africa, a long haul had to be accepted in the case of combat loaders, and an extended period of time afloat had to be accepted with LCT convoys.

8. That a landfall rendezvous for ships and landing craft would give these vessels an accurate navigational fix.

   Routing the LST and LCI convoys through a landfall rendezvous off Gozo Light made possible a more accurate approach to the Initial Landing Craft Areas while at the same time supported the "Cover" Plan by having the convoys maintain a base course Eastward toward Malta as long as possible.

8. The Operation Orders of the Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, required the presence of a Covering Group (TG 80.7) during the Eastward passage of Naval Attack Convoys along the North Coast of Africa and through the Tunisian War Channel. The Covering Group, comprising three light cruisers and seven destroyers, was formed off Algiers on D-4, when sections of NCF-1 made junction. They then steamed Eastward, ahead of the convoys NCF-1 and KMF-18, so as to maintain a suitable covering position with relation to the transports. Convoys KMF-18 and NCF-1 were scheduled to pass outside Bizerta at approximately 0600 and 0630/D-2, respectively. During night hours D-3/D-2, as these convoys entered the Tunisian War Channel, the favorable covering position was, Northward of a series of minefields which protected Bizerta, and Eastward of the convoys such that enemy surface vessels would not be able to attack the convoy from the Tyrrhenian Sea without interception by the Covering Group. Hence the Covering Group Directive advised the approximate position Latitude thirty-eight degrees ten minutes North, Longitude eleven degrees zero zero minutes East at 0100/D-2. Then, since the two convoys KMF-18 and NCF-1 were approximately twenty miles East of Bizerta at 0800/D-2 and were heading for Cape Bon with the intention of rounding to the South, Covering Group was advised a second approximate position in Latitude thirty-seven degrees seven minutes North, Longitude eleven degrees forty minutes East at 0800/D-2. This movement provided for rotating the Cover in relation to the convoys during their passage through the War Channel, in order to interpose continuous interception forces between convoys and possible enemy sorties. The second position of the cruisers also served as information for the North African Coastal Air Force to establish daylight fighter cover over them.

9. Prior to publication of the Covering Group Directive, consideration was given to provision of night fighter cover to that group during the night of D-3/D-2. CTG 80.7's route was close North of a minefield which extended Northerly from a point in the vicinity of Bizerta, a distance of nearly one hundred miles. It was not possible for the Covering Group to pass closer to the North Coast of Africa except by passing through the War Channel which movement was not compatible with the mission of the Covering Group. The North African Coastal Air Force stated that no night fighter cover could be provided because the route of the cruisers was beyond the operating range of single engine fighters and that twin engine fighters were not available.

10. Phase two was the follow-up. It included all convoys moving to reach the assault area after D day and until the military forces comprising the Western Task Forces were landed in Sicily and it likewise included the maintenance of those forces.

11. Additional to the ships and landing craft allocated for the initial assault, approximately sixty ships were allocated to the Commander, Western Naval Task Force. These ships participated in the follow-up and supplemented the turn around of landing craft in loading and transporting further elements of the 7th Army. These sixty ships were sailed in three convoys; two from Oran and Algiers on D-3 and D-4, and one convoy from the United Kingdom passing Algiers on D-l day. The convoys followed the normal coastal route along the North African coast at speeds of advance of eight knots for the two originating in Oran and Algiers, and a speed of twelve knots for the United Kingdom convoy.

12. In the turn around for landing craft, all that were designated for carrying supplies were directed to proceed to Bizerta because the Army supply depot (Eastern Base Section) was located there. Tunis was the loading point for vehicles and personnel only. Hence, after departure of the assault convoys, no maintenance supplies were loaded at the port of Tunis. The routes which were designated for returning landing craft ran westerly from the Attack areas to a position north of Pantellaria and to the Tunisian War Channel off Cape Bon, thence by swept channels to Tunis or Bizerta as appropriate. The landing craft route back to the Attack areas was by swept channels to Cape Bon and then easterly and south of Pantellaria, thence on northeast courses to the proper landing craft area. Each route was six miles wide and convoys were directed as follows: "Convoys or groups of ships or craft with a speed of advance of ten knots or more are to keep to port of the center line. Convoys or groups of ships or craft with a speed of advance of less than ten knots are to keep to starboard of the center line." The primary reason for designating shuttle routes was for simplification of aircraft fighter cover and ease of surface patrol. Furthermore the routes were made narrow because it was not possible to sweep a wider channel against mines with the mine sweeping forces available. Also the routing helped to prevent convoys from crossing one another, especially at night.

13. Phase three involved movements of troops into Sicily, additional to the assault forces of the Western Task Force. These movements involved the continued shuttle of landing ships and craft from Tunisian and Tripolitanian ports, and the employment of personnel ships and M/T store ships from Algerian and Egyptian ports. Finally the logistic build-up of the occupation forces was provided in UGS convoys from the United States and KMS convoys from the United Kingdom. Combatant vessels of the Western Task Force were employed as escorts for these convoy movements affecting the Seventh Army, which were routed by direct route to designated Sicilian ports available at the time. Phase three commenced before the second phase had been completed and ran concurrently with it until the Western Task Force had been landed in Sicily, after which the third phase continued in accordance with the plans of the Allied Force Headquarters which provided for distribution of forces in Sicily as a base for future offensive operations.

Section III -- APPROACH:

1. The Approach Plan of the Western Naval Task Force was designed to provide an orderly, timely, and well-coordinated approach from a landfall rendezvous, and permit daylight deployment of forces in order to deliver simultaneous attacks in strength.

2. Factors affecting the Approach Plan were:

   1. The preliminary disposition of forces imposed by the steaming radii and seaworthiness of various types of vessels employed.

   2. Movements of forces conforming to the "cover plan."

   3. Movements of covering forces.

   4. Routing of forces to ensure maximum air coverage.

   5. Mutual non-interference by forces with regard to space and time factors.

   6. Economy of time afloat for troops embarked in landing craft.

   7. Consideration of mineable waters.

   8. Selection of a suitable landfall favorable to obtaining an accurate navigational fix.

   9. units and groups sailing in different convoys to effect rendezvous in daylight.

   10. Placing the main assault forces on a long run on the approximate approach course,

   11. Permit deployment of forces during daylight on the approach course.

12. Selection of approach courses most suitable for use of fathometer and radar during close approach to enemy shores in darkness,

13. Selection of approach courses requiring the minimum of maneuvering by assault ships after entering initial transport area.
3. The Approach Plan as promulgated, satisfied, with minor exceptions, all the factors tabulated above. It provided for the routing and timing of landing craft convoys sailing from Sousse, Tunis, and Bizerta to enable the LSTs (Convoy TJM-1) and LCIs (Convoy TJF-1) to make a rendezvous and later a landfall 270° 5 miles from Gozo Island light at 1600 on D-l, thence proceeding northwestward to join LCT movement (Convoy TJS-1) at 1800 near the meridian of 14° East from whence the approach was made by the JOSS Force.

4. During D-l the weather was most unfavorable for craft convoys, the wind velocity being about 35 knots with a moderate sea. In spite of this heavy weather, the craft made the Gozo landfall on time where the LSTs and LCIs of the CENT, DIME, and KOOL groups were released. The JOSS forces, comprising the "greater part of the craft, then maneuvered to execute the JOSS approach. On a northerly course the LSTs had difficulty making 8 knots, the LCIs were taking seas over solid, and the smaller craft were making heavy weather of it. The formations were in good order but gradually began to straggle. The LCT convoy was directed to proceed independently and considerable concern was felt as to whether the LCT tank waves would arrive at the assault beaches in time to support the assault infantry. This was accomplished, however, in the face of extremely adverse weather conditions.

5. In order to meet the H-hour, it became necessary to press the JOSS LSTs and LCIs in spite of the wind and sea conditions. This caused some LSTs in the groups to lag to the extent as to lose sight contact with the next group ahead, resulting in some craft becoming separated from their proper groups and eventually anchoring in the wrong area in the initial transport area. The Control Ships, acting as escorts during the approach, likewise became separated and were not in their proper positions in the Rendezvous Areas to assemble and lead the assault LCVPs to the beach.

6. The JOSS forces, however, closed on the reference vessels and the Beacon Submarine, which were on their prescribed stations and which made the prescribed beacon signals in the face of enemy searchlight illumination and momentarily expected enemy gunfire. The navigational phase of this approach could not have been improved upon, and all Attack Groups were able to attain their initial transport areas and land at their respective beaches.

7. The DIME and CENT forces were routed well southward of Malta so as to make a long run on the approximate approach course. These forces comprised Convoy NCF-1; the DIME force being the 1st section, scheduled to pass through a position 270° 5 miles from Gozo Light at 1850; and the CENT force, 2nd section, steaming about 7 miles astern of the 1st section, scheduled to pass through position 270° 5 miles from Gozo Light at 1920.

8. Also approaching this position westward of Gozo was convoy KMF-18 carrying the BARK (SOUTH) assault forces. KMF-18 was scheduled to pass the Gozo tangent at 1815, ahead of Convoy NCF-1, but, due to head winds and seas, this convoy was behind schedule. This force was also observed to be westward apparently of the intended longitude when passing 270° from Gozo Light.

9. At any rate, the DIME force passed through the assigned position on time, and the CENT force nine minutes behind schedule. The slight delay of the CENT force may be attributed to the maneuvers executed by the second section of NCF-1, beginning at 1802, when this force slowed to ten knots, and at 1815 began taking cruising disposition in accordance with CTF 85 Approach Plan.

10. The LSTs and LCIs of the CENT and DIME Forces, upon being released off Gozo Light at 1600, headed northeastward to assigned positions where routes were taken to enable the smaller vessels to join up with the transports coming up from the southward. As these craft headed up on northerly courses, they were given a considerable set by the wind and sea then existent. The CENT LSTs rolled heavily in the trough of the sea causing a shift of cargo in some ships; this formation was then maneuvered by changes of course and speed to permit shoring of cargo.

11. Thus, when the two sections of NCF-1 passed northward of Gozo, LSTs and LCIs were observed across their approach courses. This resulted in considerable maneuvering by simultaneous ships movements by the combat-loaders, particularly by the CENT Force which maneuvered along the meridian 14° East until 1953 when northeasting was begun at standard speed to get on

proper approach track which was reached at 2050. Meanwhile the DIME Force increased speed to make up the loss of time but the LSTs and LCIs were unable to maintain position in the heavy seas, and gradually fell behind the combat loaders. For simplicity of navigation and ease of handling, the DIME Force approached in a single column of two cruisers and eleven transports flanked on one side by a column of LCIs and on the other by LSTs; due to straggling these columns became inordinately long.
12. At 2305 one division of the CENT Force was further delayed by the transport THOMAS Jefferson which stopped for twelve minutes to lower and cast adrift a support boat. The four ships astern of the Jefferson also stopped to maintain position on the ship ahead.

13. There was no difficulty in the approach to the initial transport areas due to the paucity of distinctive landmarks on shore or the rolling nature of the terrain behind the shoreline. Navigation was greatly simplified by

    1. The accurate fix off Gozo with a short run of about fifty miles thereafter,

    2. Judicious use of the SG radar in conjunction with

    3. the supersonic fathometer and

    4. dead reckoning tracer.

14. The SG radar picked up land at 22,000 yards and from thence on was a good navigational aid. The Beacon Submarine served as a final check and enabled ships to move into assigned positions with accuracy.

15. In spite of ragged station keeping and adverse weather conditions the CENT forces reached the assigned area at 0040 and the DIME forces at 0045.

16. The landing ships and craft made best of way to the assigned initial areas and were able to land on the beaches when required.

17. The planning and execution- of the approach from the standpoint of navigation and seamanship left nothing to be desired and was one of the highlights of the operation.

Section IV -- BEACON SUBMARINES

1. Three British submarines were employed in the operation: HMS Seraph(CENT); HMS Shakespeare (DIME); HMS SAFARI (JOSS). Prior to departure from North African ports, each submarine operated briefly with the escort vessel with which it was to effect rendezvous during the approach phase of the operation. These exercises were conducted in the Oran, Algiers, and Bizerta areas.

2. These submarines took up offensive patrol stations in a prescribed operating area in the Gulf of Gela on D minus three. While patrolling on station these submarines observed nightly displays over land of aircraft flares, anti-aircraft gunfire and bomb flashes. Low-flying aircraft and aircraft flares forced Seraph and Shakespeareto dive during the early morning of D minus two. On the night of D minus two, Seraph, while trying to lay a type FH-830 buoy, was interrupted by an enemy E-boat, necessitating a quick dive.

3. All ships were on assigned stations as required. The Seraph was contacted by destroyer Cowie at 2318 on D minus one; the Shakespearewas contacted by destroyer Cole at 2215 on D minus one; and Safari was contacted by the destroyer Bristol at 2230 on D minus one.

4. All submarines made retirement under escort according to plan, reaching Malta on D day. Escort of Seraph picked up survivor during early morning of D day who turned out to be an American soldier who had fallen overboard from a transport. As Safari was leaving station near Licata under escort of PC-543, this submarine had two sticks of bombs dropped near her by JU-88s. No damage was suffered.

5. Although the Task Forces had been deliberately routed to enable them to obtain a sure navigational fix four or five hours prior to reaching the assigned initial transport areas, and in spite of the valuable navigation aid available in the modern radar equipment, it was decided to employ Beacon Submarines to ensure accurate location of the transports off the assault beaches. In the Gulf of Gela, where the CENT and DIME forces were somewhat cramped for sea room, it was deemed essential that these forces be accurately fixed and mutual interferences avoided.

6. The employment of Beacon Submarines should be dependent upon attendant circumstances in each instance. In areas of strong or variable currents, or where no landfall is available from

which to make the approach, or where no distinctive landmarks exist for radar fix, the Beacon Submarine is of inestimable value. By placing submarines on station several days in advance of the assault, these vessels can conduct reconnaissance of selected landing beaches, land amphibious scouts, observe enemy defense activities on shore, such as placing of barbed wire, machine gun pits, etc. A patrol of the area can locate enemy mine fields, observe coastal traffic and routes habitually followed through enemy mine fields, and can determine the extent of enemy coastal patrols all of which may affect the entry of our forces into those waters. It is essential, of course, that such information as is gained by submarines on station patrol be made available to the Task Force Commander prior to or upon his arrival in the assault area.
7. Where the circumstances dictate the withdrawal of the Beacon Submarine before the assault, use can be made of various types of buoys laid by the submarine as navigational aids to the approaching assault forces.

Section V -- THE LANDING

1. The Western Task Force, (U.S. Seventh Army), was firmly established ashore over beaches in southern Sicily by the Western Naval Task Force. Army forces in assault were composed of three reinforced divisions, of which the 1st and 45th Infantry Divisions reinforced formed the Second Corps and were landed over beaches in DIME and CENT areas, respectively; and the 3rd Infantry Division reinforced which was landed over beaches in the JOSS area. Army forces in floating reserve were one Regimental Combat Team from the 1st Infantry Division and one armored Combat Command from 2nd Armored Division.

2. Army forces and beaches, DIME assault.

   In the vicinity of Gela, two Ranger Battalions and two Regimental Combat Teams comprising the 1st Infantry Division reinforced, less one RCT, (DIME Force), were landed in assault. The Ranger Battalions were landed over beaches in front of Gela in LCVP's and LCA's; one battalion having been embarked in the Attack Transport U.S. S. Dickman, and the other embarked in two British LSI (L)'s, the Prince Charles and Prince Leopold. The reserve for the Ranger landing was a Combat Engineer Battalion in three LCI(L),s. Two Battalion Landing Teams, respectively from each Regimental Combat Team, were landed in assault in LCVP's from Attack Transports, (APA and XAP) over assigned beaches. The third Battalion of each Regimental Combat Team, was in regimental reserve for its own RCT, and was embarked in eight LCI(L)'s.

   The DIME assault beaches and assigned Army forces were as follows, reading as from West to East, total frontage approximately 8,800 yards:

   Beach	Forces	Transport
   RED	1st Ranger Battalion	Dickman
   GREEN	4th Ranger Battalion	Prince Charles Prince Leopold
   YELLOW	1st Battalion, 26th RCT	Barnett
   BLUE	2nd Battalion, 26th RCT	Lyon
   RED 2	2nd Battalion, 16th RCT	Thurston
   GREEN 2	1st Battalion, 16th RCT	Stanton

3. Army forces and beaches, CENT assault

   In the vicinity of Scoglitti, three Regimental Combat Teams comprising the 45th Infantry Division reinforced, (CENT force), were landed in assault. Two Battalion Landing Teams from each Regimental Combat Team were landed over assigned beaches in LCVP's having disembarked from APA's and XAP's. The third Battalion of the 180th Regimental Combat Team acted as reserve for the Second Corps. The Third Battalion of the 179th Regimental Combat Team acted as reserve for the 45th Division. The third Battalion of the 157th Regimental Combat Team acted as reserve for its own RCT. These reserve Battalions were embarked in the XAP Frederick Funstan on the West, the XAP Florence Nightingale in the center, and the APA Biddle on the East, respectively of the 180th, 179th, and 157th Regimental Combat Teams, in that order.

   The CENT assault beaches and assigned Army forices were as follows, reading as from West to East, total frontage approximately 25,000 yards:

   Beach	Forces	Transport
   RED	1st Battalion, 180th RCT 2nd Battalion, 180th RCT	Calvert Neville
   GREEN	2nd Battalion, 179th RCT	Dorothy Dix
   YELLOW	1st Battalion, 179th RCT	Leonard Wood

Beach	Forces	Transport
BLUE	As assigned, during the follow-up
RED 2	As assigned, during the follow-up
GREEN 2	2nd Battalion, 157th RCT	Thomas Jefferson
YELLOW 2	1st Battalion,157th RCT	Charles Carroll
BLUE 2	As assigned, during the follow-up

4. Army forces and beaches, JOSS assault.

   In the vicinity of Licata, one Ranger Battalion and three Regimental Combat Teams comprising the 3rd Infantry Division reinforced, (JOSS Force), were landed in assault. The Ranger Battalion was landed over assigned beaches in LCA's; having been embarked in two British LSI(S)'s, the Princess Charlotte and Princess Astrid. Two Regimental Combat Teams were landed in column of Battalions, the assault Battalions, respectively landing in LCVP's, having embarked in LST's; the following Battalions, in each case landing in LCI(L)'s. Two Battalions of the third Regimental Combat Team were landed in column, in LCVP's; having embarked in LST's. The third Battalion of this Regimental Combat Team was landed, behind the Ranger Battalion, in LCVP's; having embarked in LST's. One armored Combat Command, Combat Command A, Second Armored Division, acted as floating reserve for the JOSS Force.

   The JOSS assault beaches and assigned Army forces were as follows, reading as from West to East, total frontage approximately 22,000 yards.

   Beach	Forces	Transport
   RED	1st Battalion, 7th RCT 2nd Battalion, 7th RCT 3rd Battalion,7th RCT	Landing Craft Landing Craft Landing Craft
   GREEN WEST	3rd Ranger Battalion	2-LSI(S)'s
   GREEN EAST	2nd Battalion, 15th RCT	Landing Craft
   YELLOW	3rd Battalion, 15th RCT 1st Battalion, 15th RCT	Landing Craft Landing Craft
   BLUE	2nd Battalion, 30th RCT 1st Battalion, 30th RCT 3rd Battalion, 30th RCT	Landing Craft Landing Craft Landing Craft

5. The floating reserve for the Western Task Force, (KOOL Force), was composed of Combat Command B, Second Armored Division, and the 18th Regimental Combat Team of the 1st Infantry Division. These forces were embarked in the Chateau Thierry, the Orizaba and in Landing Craft.

6. Although the DIME landing has been called "combined landing", that is, ship to shore and shore to shore (landing craft) ; the CENT landing called ship to shore; the JOSS landing called shore to shore; the initial attack by the assault Battations was everywhere ship to shore. The assault Battalions were all landed in LCVP's and LCA's; having embarked originally in transports and landing craft. The differences in manner of effecting the landing applied to the reserve or follow-up forces. The three reserve Battalions of the DIME Force were landed in LCI(L)'s, the three reserve Battalions of CENT Force were landed in LCVP's from transports, four of the immediate follow-up Battalions of JOSS Force were landed in LCI(L)'s, and two in LCVP's from LST's.

7. Debarkation.

   Shortly after midnight, July 9-10, immediately following the arrival of Combat Loaded transports, British LSI(S)'s, and landing ships in their assigned initial transport and landing ship areas, the debarkation operations began. In spite of poor weather conditions, in all transport areas, the lowering and troop loading of the initial assault wave LCVP's and LCA's was carried out in a minimum of time and with only minor incidents. Ships in DIME and CENT areas experienced difficulty in hoisting out boats because of rough water and swells. CENT Force, being more exposed to the sea, damaged a number of boats and consequently lost time in unloading. DIME Force suffered some damage to boats but little or no delay in unloading. Seamanship displayed was good throughout. It is noted that the time required for clearing the DIME assault waves was, generally, from thirty to forty-five minutes. In CENT area, the time required was greater. For future planning of amphibious operations in the Mediterranean, time given to this operation should probably be an hour with a safety factor to allow for delays due to weather.

8. Forming up on Lines of Departure.

   Assault waves formed up first in the assigned transport rendezvous areas in full accordance

with the landing plan of attack and were subsequently escorted, in most instances, by assigned AM's, PC's, and SC's, which acted as landing craft control vessels during the initial assault stages. The control vessels took charge of the assault LCVP's and LCA's at the transport rendezvous areas and escorted them to the designated respective lines of departure. From there, assault boat waves, as directed, proceeded on schedule to their assigned beaches, unloaded troops, retracted as soon as possible, and returned to make a follow-up troop carry as ordered. A distinctive characteristic of the initial attack was the manner in which an order, contained in the basic plan, was carried out. The basic plan expressly directed all forces to "Extend the timing of assault waves to avoid congestion on beaches." In general, this order was well carried out during the initial assault.
9. Landing of assault waves, DIME.

   H hour was planned for 0245. The first DIME wave arrived at their beaches about on schedule. Fires at inland targets, started by bombing prior to H hour, aided considerably in identifying the beaches. Initial opposition at Red and Green beaches was light; at Yellow it was heavy; on Blue beaches, light; and over Red 2 and Green 2, opposition was fairly heavy. The surf at the beaches was about three feet high, and together with a strong current and Force 4 Westerly winds, many landing craft coxswains were in serious difficulty with craft broaching on the beaches. The LCI(L)'s, carrying the three reserve Battalions, landed shortly after the LCVP's had gone in, beaching at about 0330. They discharged their troops and retracted without serious difficulty except for LCI(L) 220, which lost her stern anchor, suffered shell fire damage to her port screw, and subsequently broached on the beach.

10. Landing of assault waves, CENT.

    Delays in loading assault boats in CENT area prompted the Attack Force commander to order postponement of H hour to 0345 for that Force. The landings were generally unopposed, due to the pre-assault Cruiser and Destroyer shore bombardment. The 157th Regimental Combat Team landed on its assigned beaches, pushed promptly inland, and captured the designated initial objectives ahead of schedule. The 179th Regimental Combat Team, in general, landed on the correct beaches, but experienced delay in movement through the dune area immediately inland because of extensive mine fields. The 180th Regimental Combat Team gained its assigned D day objectives after completing a successful landing. The fact that this landing was not made on the correct beaches did cause some delay in marching and forming up.

11. Landing of assault waves, JOSS.

    In the JOSS area, initial attack waves, with a delay caused by bad weather, landed according to plan. All of the landings went forward successfully, and in spite of enemy counterfire on some beaches, and poor weather, Army forces were landed over the correct beaches according to the planned time-interval schedule. Although the attack groups anchored between H-20 minutes and H-90 minutes, it is believed that they were at a greater distance from the beach than the scheduled three and a half miles; thus, the assault LCVP's were required to make a considerable longer run than had been planned.

    The Commander JOSS Attack Force, in his Action Report, made the following comment: "The navigational phase of the operation could not have been improved upon. The H.M.S. Safari, the Bristol and the Patrol Craft assigned this mission deserve the highest praise. It was through their expert navigation . . . that all attack groups were able to attain their transport areas and land at the center of their respective beaches. This was supplemented by the scout boats at Yellow and Green beaches." While there was not much gunfire on Green, Yellow and Blue beaches, considerable artillery and MG fire was met during the landing on Red beach.

12. Non-congestion, assault waves.

    Assault boat waves, especially at beaches where due to causes beyond their control it had not been possible to keep to the scheduled H hour, managed to avoid congestion on beaches during the immediate assault by maintaining an adequate time spacing between waves. For future amphibious campaigns, where operationally practicable, some degree of flexibility in executing H hour requirements may be found desirable. In the event that the planned H hour cannot possibly be attained, it may become necessary to set a new H hour thereby altering the time, but not the relative schedule, of pre-assault naval gunfire and arrival of the initial assault boat waves at designated beaches. It may be found feasible to fire some form of aerial rocket or combination of rockets from the vicinity of the Task Force Flagship as a signal to indicate the new H-15 or H-30 minute time reference point to that Task Force. Immediate confirmation of this change by every means available would be an absolute requirement. Available methods of increasing the splendid degree of coordination of naval gunfire with the arrival of assault boat waves should be thoroughly investigated and tested in order to provide the utmost possible protection to the attacking forces.

13. Destruction of beach defenses.

    At CENT destroyers were employed to cover and support the landing. Preparatory fire was opened at about H-15. Each fire support destroyer was assigned an area of responsibility which was well covered by 5" projectiles. The fire was lifted just before the first wave landed.

    The effect of this close supporting fire was apparent as the 45th Division landed practically unopposed and was able to proceed with the establishment of its beachhead faster than planned.

    Pre-assault naval gunfire, where used, on pre-arranged targets and beaches, was extremely effective in destroying enemy beach defenses and constituted a definite factor in reducing the number of causalities and the amount of landing craft damage from enemy local action at the beach landing and unloading points. It is evident that the clearance and neutralization of beach defenses by naval gunfire is most vital to the success of the initial assault. Naval gunfire can efficiently aid in preventing enemy action from pinning the initial troop waves to the beaches on which they have landed.

14. Beach crossings.

    The CENT force landed initially on a very broad front and its stores, ammunition, and supplies were distributed initially along several miles of sandy beaches. Exits from these beaches were infrequent, difficult, and mined. Retraction was satisfactory," but breaking surf on outer bar caused a few LCVP's to broach. Several boats were lost on rocks off beaches Green 2 and Yellow 2 and casualties were sustained. Salvage was handicapped by shoal water where tugs could not operate.

    LCA's and LCVP's encountered little difficulty in the DIME area. In some eight out of 16 cases the LCI(L)'s used for the reserve battalions of the RCTs were able to beach far enough to permit safe debarkation of troops direct to land. In the other cases resort was had to auxiliary craft such as rubber boats and LCVP's for debarkation. As vehicles began to use the beaches, it was discovered that they were heavily mined, and bulldozers, DUKWs, and other vehicles were lost.

    In the JOSS assault area, the Green beaches proved to be the most hazardous, as had been expected. The narrow rocky entrance, the cross sea from NW, and the shallowness of the beach made it impossible to retract or to render assistance to those beached until succeeding waves had landed. Most of these boats were not broached but merely stuck in the sand. LST's had great difficulty unloading at Red beach due to the poor gradient and soft sand. On D day, due to the narrow approaches, LCT's were sent in five at a time to the right flank of Red beach. It was finally decided to unload all LST's at either Yellow or Blue beaches or in Licata harbor.

15. For the purpose of emphasis on certain important characteristics of the amphibious assault landing, from the naval viewpoint, some naval considerations involving night landings and dawn landings are here listed.

16. Night landing

    A night attack offers the advantages of:

    1. localizing the counter action

    2. opportunity for a series of local tactical surprises at separated localities.

    3. providing protection of darkness for assault craft and troops that cannot be obtained in any other way.

    4. making effective small amounts of smoke laid down to screen the approach.

    5. enemy non-ability to light up the large water and landing areas involved through the use of flares and searchlights.

    6. increasing the effectiveness of deceptive feints at enemy coastal points not involved in the main assault.

17. Night landing

    A night attack offers the disadvantage of:

    1. difficult navigation and exact location of ships in assault areas.

    2. boats landing on other than correct beaches.

    3. difficulty in simultaneously placing assault troops on beaches at exactly H hour.

    4. prohibiting pre-assault visual signaling except through the use of special devices, which cannot be issued to landing craft.

    5. enemy parachute flares such as those employed by the German Air Force in

       CENT area whereby Allied vessels were plainly visible and the only defense was, in this instance, blind firing, using radar.

    6. intensifying the effect of poor weather conditions, notably fog, swell and high winds.

    7. nullifying vital phases of the plan of attack in the event of a delay in H hour beyond daylight.

8. preventing rapid and accurate minesweeping of the approaches.
18. Dawn landing

    Dawn landing advantages are:

    1. boats land at exact beaches.

    2. H hour is more easily kept.

    3. visual signaling is available.

    4. own airforce can more easily intercept enemy attacking planes.

    5. attack force can use more hours of darkness for approach, can thus carry out a longer approach, may thus come closer to achieving surprise.

    6. boat maneuvering and troop loading is made less difficult.

    7. naval gunfire can develop a real effectiveness.

    8. anti-aircraft defense of the ships offshore is improved.

    9. identification of own and enemy aircraft is less difficult.

19. Dawn landing.

    Dawn landing disadvantages:

    1. tactical surprise is lost at local beach landings.

    2. enemy land communications can function better and faster.

    3. enemy can deploy his forces faster and more effectively in daylight.

20. The dawn landing scheme of attack would necessitate control of own air forces by the Attack Force Commander in order to insure protection of the combat loaders and of the assault boat waves; in order to provide bombing attacks on call on designated assault beaches and enemy strong points; and to give freedom of action in the air over the Attack Force areas.

Section VI -- D DAY: H HOUR: SURPRISE.

1. The Appreciation of Force 141, (SSO 17/3(FINAL)), the document upon which the Highest Echelon Outline Plan was based stated:

   "72. To ensure the success of the seaborne assaults, it will be necessary first to neutralize the beach defenses,whether the assault is carried out in darkness, smoke or daylight. There are three possible methods of neutralization:--

   1. Naval bombardment.

   2. Air bombardment.

   3. Action by airborne troops.

   It is considered that the number of ships available and the fact that naval gun power is not designed for land bombardment make the use of (a) unsuitable. The primary role of the air forces will be the destruction of enemy air power and therefore (b) will not be available. Therefore it is essential that airborne troops be used to soften the defenses against which seaborne assaults will be made. This role is of greater importance than the early capture of the airfields."

   "73. It is considered that this softening of the defenses is of such vital importance to the whole plan that all possible resources in transport aircraft must be made available to lift the maximum number of parachute troops."

2. After considerable discussion of the most suitable time for dropping paratroops, the following CONCLUSIONS are derived:

   "76.

   1. Airborne troops are necessary to neutralize the beach defenses, and their maximum employment is required.

   2. Seaborne assaults should take place sometwo hours before first light.

   3. Airborne troops should be landed preferably in the dark or at dusk in sufficient time and at such a place as to be able to complete their task before the seaborne assault takes place."

   "81. To allow the airborne troops to make some use of some moon and to afford the approach to the coastline the cover of darkness, D day should be about 10 July, when the moon is in its second quarter".

3. From the above, the following repetitions are made for the purpose of further comment:

   "To ensure success of the seaborne assaults, it will be necessary first to neutralize the beach defenses . . ."

". . . naval gun power is not designed for land bombardment . . . use of [is] unsuitable."

". . . it is essential that airborne troops be used to soften the defenses against which seaborne assaults will be made".

". . . this softening of the defenses is of such vital importance to the whole plan

"Airborne troops are necessary to neutralize the beach defenses . . ."

4. From the above it will be noted that the softening of the beach defenses by paratroops was vital to the success of the seaborne assaults, and that the dropping of these troops on this mission determined the D day and H hour.

5. The D day was fixed as 10 July and H hour as 0245 i.e., "two hours before first light".

6. On 21 May 1943 the original Outline Plan was cancelled and a new Outline Plan (generally referred to as The "Montgomery" Plan) was issued. This new plan was not based on new information nor on a new appreciation; it called for a change in the locale of the American troops and eliminated the staggered time of assaults laid down in the old plan. The D day remained unchanged.

7. With the development of the Force 343 (7th Army) Plan, the mission of the paratroops now became

   "Land on night of D-l/D in area northeast of Gela.

   1. capture and secure high ground in that area

   2. disrupt communications and movement of reserves during the night, and

   3. be attached to 1st Infantry Division effective H plus one hour on D day

   4. assist 1st Infantry Division in capturing and securing airfield at Ponte Olivo.

8. Again quoting from the Appreciation:

   "Therefore it is essential that airborne troops be used to soften the defenses against which seaborne assaults will be made. This role is of greater importance than the early capture of the airfields."

9. Thus the mission of the paratroopers in the 7th Army Assault Plan was entirely unrelated to the "neutralization of beach defenses" -- the single feature considered of "vital importance to the whole plan."

10. The D day and H hour remained unchanged: both of these were unsuitable from a naval viewpoint but had been accepted because the destruction of the beach defenses by the paratroops was "the vital part of the whole plan."

    The date, 10 July, occurred in the second quarter of the moon, on which date the following astronomical conditions obtained (all times Zone minus two):

    Date (July)	9/10	10/11
    Sunset	2023	2022
    Last light	2133	2132
    Moonrise	- -	- -
    Moonset	0031	0102
    First light	0439	0439
    Sunrise	0546	0547

11. It will noted in the Appreciation that the selected date would "afford the approach to the coastline the cover of darkness." An examination of the Astronomical Data above will reveal no such darkness. On the contrary the assault forces were required to make the approach in a brilliant waxing moon which would not set until the vessels had hove-to in the Initial Transport Areas immediately under the coast defense guns of the enemy. These facts were well known to the naval planners who pointed out the fact that the moon phase selected was most unfavorable from naval considerations. The date, however, was not changed because is was reiterated that this phase was most favorable to dropping of the paratroops who were the only means available to "neutralize the beach defenses opposing the seaborne assaults" -- "the most vital part of the whole plan."

12. The H hour (0245) had been fixed by the fact that it required the paratroops about three hours from dropping time to assemble and carry out their mission of softening the beach defenses."

Under the Force 343 plan the paratroops were directed to inland objectives in a direction away from the "beach defenses against which seaborne assaults will be made."
13. Since the softening of the beach defenses prior to the landings was so vital to the success of the whole plan, naval planners then proposed the employment of naval gunfire against the beach defenses. This was not acceptable to the Army because it was stated "surprise" was to be achieved in the assault. This was voiced as a "Fundamental Principle of War" which, of course, it is not. It was pointed out that there are many factors militating against our carrying the attack to the enemy shores unexpectedly. A few of these were:

    1. The conquest of Tunisia placed our forces closer to Sicily than any other Axis territory.

    2. The recent Allied conquest of Pantellaria, and the Pelagic group of Islands.

    3. The increased tempo of Allied air attacks with most recent concentration on the air forces of Sicily and the communications of the Straits of Messina.

    4. The bombing by Allied aircraft of the R. D.F. stations on the Southeastern portion of Sicily. This would obviously direct the attention of the enemy that we desired to render ineffectual his observation facilities in that local area.

    5. The constant PRU flights made by Allied aircraft over the landing beaches during the months of June and early July. Tracking of these planes would give the enemy valuable information in his G-2 Estimate of the Situation. The presence of low-flying Allied aircraft engaged in taking oblique photographs of the selected landing beaches must become known to the enemy.

    6. The capture in Sicily of Allied reconnaissance personnel engaged in scrutinizing the beaches selected for landings.

    7. The redistribution of enemy E-boats and destroyers to strengthen the Sicilian force.

    8. The concentration of Allied landing craft in Tunisian ports.

    9. The constant aerial reconnaissance maintained by enemy aircraft over Allied ports and contiguous waters.

    10. The assault date (10 July) which was in the second quarter of the moon.

        This phase of the moon was unsuitable from the viewpoint of discovery of the approaching sea forces.

    11. The H hour required the sea forces to be on approach courses and within 25 miles of the coast at evening twilight where their presence could be detected by enemy shore-based radar, coastal patrol vessels, or enemy aircraft.

14. Since the H hour required that our transports be in the Initial Transport Areas in brilliant moonlight (H-3), the prospect seemed remote that the enemy would fail to observe this concentration of hostile shipping off his shores. It was apparent, moreover, that any illumination of our forces would alert the enemy and disclose our intentions. Further, heavy bombing and the dropping of paratroops having preceded H hour by some three hours, the preservation of surprise was illusory. Under the circumstances existing, it was the naval viewpoint that surprise on the assault beaches was not feasible. It was, in fact, not necessary providing a proper employment were made to exploit the means available to us so as to bring about the effect desired, viz: the rapid seizure of a beachead.

15. The old-fashioned military concept that naval guns are unsuitable for shore bombardment needs revision. Modern naval guns in cruisers and destroyers are high angle guns capable of ranging on reverse slope targets far in the interior in support of seaborne landings. The firepower in the vessels assigned to gunfire support exceeded that of all the artillery landed in the 7th Army assault. Due to the mobility of these ships, it is possible to bring about a concentration of gunfire on a shore target with greater firepower than is possible with Army artillery which is distributed among the various divisions and hence deployed in various directions upon being landed. Thus there is available to the Army a mobile artillery concentration of tremendous power capable of being exploited to the advantage of the ground forces which require time for consolidation ashore before the full weight of the Army can be bought to bear against the enemy.

16. Initially the proper employment for this mobile artillery (naval gunfire) is neutralization of beach defenses and shore batteries threatening the landing. Where this employment was made prior to H hour, as in the CENT area, the enemy batteries were silenced and the beaches thoroughly devastated, and all opposition at the beaches obliterated, thus enabling the soldiers to step ashore without hindrance. The employment of naval gunfire in the annihilation of German tanks threatening the DIME forces on D plus one day is covered in another part of this report. This incident represents,

however, the effectiveness of naval gunfire against a fast moving target in the hinterland, well back from the beaches, and serves to illustrate the versatility and effectiveness of a weapon hitherto dismissed by military authorities as "unsuitable" for bombardment against shore objectives.
17. In the planning of future amphibious operations a deliberate study should be made of all factors influencing the landing in determining the D day and H hour. This study should examine the advantages and disadvantages of dawn, day, and night landing with due regard to the factors affecting all services participating in the operation. The soundness of this observation is self-evident.

18. Paratroop transport aircraft might well be grounded by weather conditions and yet this plan was stated to rest upon their employment for a definite mission. This mission was never executed. In the Western Task Force area the paratroops landed in a strong northwest wind causing many to land in regions remote from the dropping zone. It is questionable whether the effectiveness of the airborne troops was commensurate with the importance ascribed in the selection of the date, particularly in view of the mission assigned them in relation to the beach assaults.

19. In the selection of D day and H hour, the naval implications should be given more consideration by all the interested services. It should be recognized that while the assaulting troops are embarked in transports and craft they are virtually impotent as a fighting force. The troops must be safely landed in accordance with the Plan of Attack, deployed on shore, and be provided promptly with their arms, ammunition, and combat logistics before the Army can function as a fighting organization. It follows, therefore, that the selection of the D day and H hour unfavorable to the seaward assault from a naval viewpoint might well lead to disaster.

Section VII -- CONTROL VESSELS.

1. The Commanders of DIME, CENT, and JOSS Forces assigned, in their operation plans, general tasks to control vessels, which tasks were in agreement with the Basic Plan and Standard Operating Procedure (AFAF). In each area the respective plans provided a primary and a secondary control vessel. Thus; the primary control vessel regulated the shoreward movement of the first and second boat waves, the secondary control vessel accompanied the third and fourth waves and the tertiary control vessel, where one was assigned, led in the fifth and sixth boat waves.

2. Task Force Commanders made assignment of control vessels as follows:

   JOSS:

   GAFFI	2 PC	2 SC
   GREEN	2 PC	2 SC
   SALSO	1 PC	3 SC
   FALCONARA	1 PC	3 SC

   DIME:

   SECTION I	2 PC	2 SC
   SECTION II	1 PC	3 SC
   SECTION III	2 PC	1 SC

   CENT:

   Leonard Wood	1 PC		1 AM
   Florence Nightingale	1 PC		1 AM
   Stanton	1 PC	1 SC	1 AM
   Thurston			1 AM

3. Task Force Commanders of DIME, CENT, and JOSS Attack Forces, in their reports agreed that control vessels, generally, took charge of assault boat waves as planned, escorted them in good order to the respective lines of departure and released them to the true beaches. The fact that some waves did not meet the assigned H hour did not materially interfere with suitable time-spacing between the arrivals of initial assault waves on designated beaches.

4. Control of landing ships, craft, and boats, after the initial assault, was not entirely satisfactory at all beaches. In some instances boat traffic was governed by a beachmaster who had no means of water transportation assigned to him. At beaches where an SC or LCI(L) acted as craft and boat traffic controller, the unloading of ships was greatly expedited.

5. In order to carry out the general tasks assigned by Standing Operating Procedure (AFAF), a landing craft control vessel, possessing the following features, should be made available.

   1. Gyro Compass

   2. Radar

   3. TBS or TBY

   4. Bull-horn or directional loud speaker

   5. Fathometer

   6. Light armor and armament

   7. Diesel engines

   8. Provision made for carrying smoke

   9. Signal bridge and flag hoist

6. There should be far greater emphasis placed upon the training of control vessels officers. In the ship to shore movement it should be made clear that control of the initial assault waves and traffic control of the unloading process is one of the most important operations in amphibious warfare. Second only to naval gunfire support, control vessels are vital to the success of a landing-operation. The larger the task force, the more important become the requirements of control vessels. Control vessels should be a permanent integral part of any amphibious force. They should be assembled for training along with the entire force during the earliest stages of training prior to an operation, in order that control vessel officers can become thoroughly indoctrinated in ship to shore assault and follow-up operations.

7. Western Naval Task Force Operation Plan No. 2-43 contained three assumptions which affected the dispositions, assignments and operation of control vessels: "(1) That the initial landing will take place during darkness. (2) That weather conditions will permit landing through the surf on designated beaches. (3) That false beaches will not preclude the landing ships and craft from landing on the true beaches."

8. This plan contained directives to the DIME, CENT, and JOSS Attack Forces to establish assigned Army Forces ashore near Gela, Scoglitti, and Licata, respectively, by simultaneous attacks on selected beaches at H hour on D day in accordance with plan of attack developed by Commanding General concerned.

9. The plan, furthermore, contained orders to all forces to: "(1) Extend timing of boat waves to avoid congestion on beaches; (2) clear landing ships and craft promptly in order to ensure prompt follow up; (3) to provide adequate escorts. (4) Employ smoke to fullest extent for defense against enemy action and to screen own operations."

10. Approach Plan, Annex J to Operation Plan No. 2-43, contained directives to DIME, CENT, and JOSS Attack Forces, stating that, on arrival in the initial assigned transport area, subsequent movements were as directed by CTF 81, CTF 85, CTF 86, respectively.

11. Landing Operations Doctrine (FTP 167) defines the control group as follows: "The Control Group, consisting of vessels designated to guide and assist the movement from ship to shore, provide communication facilities with the boats and troops while enroute to the beach, and to assist in controlling the supporting naval gunfire. Certain vessels of this group may be utilized at convenient times to lay smoke screens, assist in furnishing fire support, etc."

12. Standard Operating Procedure (AFAF) assigns the following general .tasks to control vessels:

    1. Control the movement of landing craft from the boat rendezvous area of the assault transport to the beaches through the line of departure for beaches.

    2. Protect the landing craft from attack.

    3. Assist in control of naval gunfire.

    4. Act as fire support group if armament permits.

    5. Communication relay vessel to Boat Group Commanders and landing beaches.

13. It is noted that plans of Task Force Commanders did not contain uniform directives to control vessels nor were the directives, in all cases, in accord with Landing Operations Doctrine. I recommend that planning in future operations should give emphasized consideration to the further assignment of tasks to control vessel groups principally in connection with gunfire support of landing craft, assistance in the control of naval gunfire, and communications between Boat Group Commanders and landing beaches. These tasks should be performed by the landing craft control vessels to as great an extent as possible compatible with the primary and basic task, which is, "To control the movement of landing craft from the boat rendezvous area of the assault transport to the beaches through the line of departure for beaches."

Section VIII -- TRANSPORTS Combat Loading:

1. The CENT transports, with the 45th Infantry Division embarked, were loaded in the United States. Loading was accomplished at Hampton Roads and the only reloading done in these ships was that incident to rehearsals held in late June.

2. The DIME transports, with the 1st Infantry Division embarked, were loaded at Algiers. Craft carrying heavy equipment of the CENT, DIME and KOOL Forces were loaded in Algerian ports and staged to Tunis. The JOSS craft were loaded at Bizerte. LCI's of all forces were staged to Sousse.

3. The greatest difficulty experienced in loading transports occurred at Algiers. Perhaps the foremost of these difficulties was the absence of an authoritative CENTral agency with a complete knowledge of all loading plans, priorities, etc., and capable of rendering decisions. Thus at Algiers the following organizations attempted to exercise control:

   1. The 1st Infantry Division.

   2. The Mediterranean Base Section, ASF(SOS).

   3. The British Naval and Military Port Authorities.

   4. The 384th Port Battalion.

   None of these agencies had a complete and authoritative plan of what was to be loaded or where. The Transport Quartermasters' problems were made insurmountable as various units of organizations such as the Chemical Warfare Service, Signal Corps, Ordnance, Engineers, and other activities descended upon the ships to obtain space therein for their special equipment, no record of which was in the possession of the TQMs. During the loading of the ships many changes were made in the military loading plans; this seriously delayed the formulation and distribution of the Boat Employment Plans of the Transport Division Commanders.

4. Equipment definitely of garrison type, commissary gear, field kitchens and fuel, Bailey Bridging, barracks bags, administrative gear, and similar materials, obviously non-essential to the seizure of a beachhead, were crowded into the transports. Vertical loading was not adequately carried out to fully meet the demands from shore during the assault; this was particularly noticeable in the case of anti-tank weapons which were loaded in such manner as to be too inaccessible for prompt unloading upon call. All of these deficiencies are capable of correction.

5. Recommendations:

   1. That the G-4 section of the Army Division concerned keep a functioning loading and unloading office in the Flagship of the Naval Task Force Commander until all assault transports are unloaded.

   2. That this office have complete knowledge of the location of materials loaded and be constituted as the controlling authority insofar as matters of Army decision are concerned.

   3. The Combat Loading plans including those for troops be complete, receive the approval of the Naval Task Force Commander as well as the Army Commander concerned, and that once loading has commenced these plans are not to be changed without their specific approval in each case.

   4. That TQMs be regularly assigned to each APA, XAP, and AKA to ensure this officer has thorough knowledge of the ship's cargo spaces, etc., with particular reference to hazardous and inflammable materials.

   5. That materials loaded in the assault ships be limited to those required by the assault.

   6. That pallet loading be studied with a view to wider use.

Debarkation and Unloading:

6. In order to provide additional boats, most ships carried four to six extra boats swung on the booms, griped in ready for lowering. Boats were preloaded as far as possible in order to save time. In other ships, where the booms were not carrying these extra boats, prompt steps were taken to hoist out nested boats as the ships made close approach to the Initial Transport Areas. Due to the heavy swell running, many ships experienced difficulty in controlling these lifts and, in some cases, it became necessary to lower and cast adrift these craft in the interest of speeding up the debarkation. After arrival in the assigned areas, sea conditions continued to hamper the unloading

of the assault waves due to the difficulty in handling heavy weights aboard ship and loading of waterborne boats. Several derangements of cargo handling gear occurred. The sea condition were most unfavorable in the CENT area and this factor, more than any other, contributed to the delay of the H hour in that force. Some ships reported that delays were introduced in loading the assault wave boats by the removal of slings from vehicles. This could have been eliminated by providing sufficient slings for each assault loaded vehicle, leaving the sling in the boat when the vehicle is lowered to the boat. A shortage of nets developed in some ships; each APA, XAP and AKA should be provided with 30 extra nets, thus permitting the nets to be left in the boats until the return of the boats from the beach.
7. Much of the cargo gear now installed in combat-loaders was designed for discharge of cargo alongside a dock or in harbor waters -- a condition not likely to be met during an amphibious operation. The extent to which weather conditions interfered with the unloading of the assault waves, indicates the necessity of a thorough study of the present facilities now available in these vessels for lowering and unloading boats. Special attention should be given to the strengthening of deck fittings, providing means of handling heavier steadying lines, installation of stronger boom guys, strengthening of boat cleats, as well as the strengthening of Welin davits to provide an adequate safety factor for rail loading.

8. In the DIME area, where sea conditions were moderate, all boats were lowered clear of the ships from 30 to 45 minutes after reaching the Initial Transport Area. In the CENT area, where weather conditions were more severe, this operation required from 30 minutes to 6 hours, though the average time was about 2 hours.

9. Owing to the stranding of boats incurred in the initial landings, fewer boats were available for subsequent unloading of the transports. This was foreseen and provided for in my plan by the automatic shift on D day of LCTs from the JOSS area as soon as these craft had unloaded in the assault flight. Twelve LCTs were thus made available to the DIME transports and fourteen to the CENT combat-loaders during the forenoon of D day. These LCTs proved to be invaluable in the unloading of APAs, XAPs and AKAs. Factors which recommend them to this task are: (a) ease of handling, (b) ease of loading vehicles and cargo, (c) good beaching qualities, (d) in some craft, double' crews were aboard. Although LCTs enabled the unloading of the transports, and particularly the AKAs, to be greatly accelerated, these craft encountered serious difficulty in trying to unload expeditiously at the beach due to the inability of the shore party to handle the volume of stores and equipment thus placed on the shoreline. As a result, most LCTs were unloaded by the crew of the craft in order that the craft could stand clear of the beaches which were under almost constant daylight attack by enemy aircraft during the first three days of the assault. When unloading into LCTs, the "hatch crews" should be increased and at least 20 soldiers placed in each LCT to unload when the craft is beached.

10. Some LSTs, after discharging their initial lifts, were pressed into service to assist in unloading the combat-loaders. These LSTs thereby aided in expediting the departure of the assault transports, though it was recognized that the type is not suitable for this work. Not only does the structural arrangement of the LST render it unsuitable for receiving stores from a ship alongside, but the task of unloading the bulk stores after beaching places a tremendous burden upon the crew of the LST. These crews were taxed with this arduous job because of the unavailability of labor and transportation at beaches, and as long as the LSTs remained beached they were selected targets for enemy air attacks.

11. LCIs were employed to a limited extent in carrying troops from APAs and XAPs to shore. Although LCIs are suitable for such lifting of personnel, they are of little use in the transport of stores and equipment and should not be used for such employment except in an emergency.

12. LCMs, next to LCTs, are the most suitable type of craft for unloading combat-loaders. One LCM is considered to be the equivalent of five LCVPs. Each LCM should carry 4 to 6 soldiers on each trip to handle stores at the beach.

13. LCVPs make a small impression in the task of unloading numerous vehicles, and a vast quantity of ammunition, gasoline, and stores. Owing to the limited capacity of this boat, many trips are required to move any great quantity of supplies; thus prolonged operations require a large reserve of boat crews to meet the problem of operational fatigue. From a design viewpoint it is a reliable and rugged boat but, upon beaching, it must be promptly unloaded or broaching or swamping will quickly result. A large number of craft stranded while waiting to unload on beaches, though most boat crews unloaded the boats themselves. Many transports reported that their boats were ordered away from congested beaches and ordered to return to their ships without unloading.

Where this occurred ships placed working parties of bluejackets, taken from the ships' gun crews or engineers force, and sent them in with the boats to unload them; in the future at least 2 soldiers should be placed in each LCVP to help in unloading at the beach. Other boats, when ordered from congested beaches, ran along the shoreline until a suitable clear spot could be found where the boat was beached and unloaded. This, of course, resulted in some equipment and stores being landed in the wrong area.
14. DUKWs were loaded in LSTs and LCTs for the initial employment of augmenting ships boats in unloading the combat-loaders. After the first trip to shore, few DUKWs returned to the ships for further loading, having been diverted by the Army for employment on shore; this was particularly noticeable in the DIME area. Such diversion not only interrupted the unloading plan, but many DUKWs were lost or suffered accidents on shore which rendered them useless for further employment as seaborne carriers. These units are limited to a lift of about 8,000 pounds but, if available in adequate numbers and the transports are comparatively close to shore, a considerable quantity of stores can be moved in time. However, if the water haul from transports to shore is a long one, it is more satisfactory and rapid to employ LCTs rather than DUKWs, providing of course that the shore party promptly unloads the craft upon beaching. DUKWs were employed successfully in unloading LCTs through bulwark ports while unloading over the bow ramp was proceeding concurrently.

15. The size of the Army Unloading Details placed aboard combat-loaders should be increased, and particularly where the plan calls for use of LCTs in unloading. These troops should be assigned in sufficient numbers to provide relief crews in all holds in order that the unloading may continue around-the-clock. Unless great strides are made in ensuring prompt unloading of craft and boats at the beach, additional troops must be provided as working parties in the craft and boats. The fighting efficiencies of ships must not be weakened by the depletion of ships' gun crews or the engineer force to accomplish this task on shore. This is a problem deserving of close attention by the Army and one which must be met, even at the expense of some reduction in fighting troop lift.

16. Unloading was interrupted and seriously delayed by the numerous air raids and alerts which occurred day and night while the transports were in the assault area. The practice of calling all hands to General Quarters, when radar reports unidentified aircraft, appears to require modification. Some vessels established a Condition IV which provides sufficient officers to control and sufficient crew to fire all guns in the ship from ready boxes, thereby permitting uninterrupted unloading provided no alarm is sounded and guns are alerted over the control circuit only. When these ships were subjected to surprise attacks it was found that Condition IV met the attacks as effectively as could be done under Condition I. While transports are unloading in transport areas, this Condition IV should be standard doctrine even during air raids unless air attacks are in such strength or of such duration as to require implementation or replacement of gun crews stationed under Condition IV.

17. Summarizing, the principal causes of delay in unloading the combat-loaders were:

    1. unfavorable sea conditions;

    2. insufficient slings and cargo nets;

    3. derangements of cargo handling gear;

    4. stranding of boats on shore;

    5. shortage of boats and craft due to delay in unloading boats and craft at beaches;

    6. insufficient labor in the Shore Party to unload boats;

    7. too frequent General Quarters during alerts and air raids;

    All of the above, except (a), are capable of correction.

18. The loading of ships varied widely, the APAs carried from 52 to 120 vehicles, XAPs from 100 to 157 vehicles, and AKAs from 110 to 200 vehicles. The CENT combat-loaders carried 21 days maintenance for the troops embarked in the United States, the DIME assault vessels were loaded with 7 days maintenance for the troop units embarked. The actual tonnages of stores varied widely, ranging from about 450 to over 1000 tons in different ships. Pallet loading of some stores greatly facilitated cargo handling. Unloading target times of ships varied considerably and, in the actual unloading, due to delays incurred from various causes, the time required exceeded the estimates about 30f/r. The average number of boat trips per ship was about 275, this varying with the employment of different types of craft. AKAs will always lag behind APAs and XAPs, and hence must be favored in the allocation of boats and craft for unloading. In spite of the delays due to weather, enemy action, and other causes, the DIME combat-loaders were unloaded in an overall time of 60 hours, twelve of the CENT force in 63 hours, and the remaining seven vessels

at CENT in 88 hours. Due to the complete stoppage of all unloading for many hours caused by beach congestion, the actual time during which unloading operations were underway was less than the figures given herein. With vessels loaded only with essential assault weapons, equipment, and stores, in precise conformity with the standard procedure governing combat-loading, and discharging over properly organized beaches, it is estimated, neglecting enemy action, that a military force of two reinforced infantry divisions can be firmly placed ashore in 48 hours.
19. Recommendations:

    1. That a study be made of cargo handling gear of combat-loaders with a view to strengthening as required to meet stresses experienced in unloading in moderate weather at sea.

    2. That slings be placed on all vehicles to be unloaded in assault waves.

    3. That each vessel be provided with 30 extra nets.

    4. That where available LCTs be used to the fullest for the unloading of ships.

    5. That LSTs be not used to unload ships.

    6. That the size of the Unloading Details ("Hatch Crews") assigned by the Army be increased.

    7. That a standard Condition IV be adopted in combat-loaders which will enable unloading to proceed without interruption during alerts and air raids.

Boat Crews

20. In considering the large number of boats stranded or capsized in the initial assault waves, it must be recognized that the combination of the notorious characteristics of the beaches and the high cross-surf running required a greater skill on the part of boat coxswains than the majority of them possessed, for the most skillful surf-boatman would have found the problem of safely beaching the loaded craft a difficult one.

21. Training of boat crews is an ever-present requirement; it is indicated that training must emphasize night and bad weather landings of loaded boats, and training in retraction and salvage methods. Relief boat crews require as much training as regular crews; this is important.

22. More information should be given boat crews regarding what will take place in their area from time of arrival in Initial Transport Area until daylight. Boat crews should be repeatedly briefed on the ship-to-shore movement of the attack Plan, with full information regarding beaches, landmarks, silhouette and perspective views presented during boat approach to beach, etc. Boat Group Commanders and Boat Officers in the assault waves should be experienced officers of the highest available rank. The lines of organization of the boat division, group, and if necessary, flotillas, should be clearly drawn and the responsibility and authority of Commanders kept alive.

23. Boat discipline can stand improvement. There were cases of too hasty abandonment of boats which were in trouble at the beaches. Some of these crews remained on shore where they set up machine guns removed from abandoned boats.

24. In general the boat crews performed a Herculean job. Due to the early losses of boats, a heavy strain was placed thereafter upon those craft still operational. This became aggravated when boats were diverted to beaches remote from their own beaches. The fact that boat crews unloaded their own boats at the beaches, in order to effect retraction before becoming stranded, is indicative of the tremendous job accomplished by the transport organizations.

Smoke Laying

25. Transports were lax in the employment of smoke during air alerts and attacks. The suddenness of many of these enemy air attacks, which sometimes were delivered without warning, contributed to this situation. The proper employment of smoke by transports is discussed elsewhere in this report, under the title "Smoke." Greater attention should be given to smoke in future operations.

Section IX -- LANDING CRAFT

1. With the capture of the Tunis-Bizerta area on May, steps were taken without delay to establish sites for advanced bases in that area from which all types of landing craft could base, undertake amphibious training of troops, and embark the required forces and equipment for the forthcoming operation. The devastation in this area, wrought by allied bombings and axis sabotage, was wide-spread. Sunken ships, demolished wharfs and quays, wrecked fuel storage facilities, and destruction of public utilities imposed an enormous job of salvage and repair to restore

these areas to a condition suitable for military purposes.
2. While reconstruction work progressed and base facilities were being installed, the 3rd Infantry Division was made available for shore to shore training and plans for the shore to shore movement had to be developed. The details of this training had to be created, for the landing craft were of new types, untried in battle, and no technique for their employment was known to exist. Few in the Army had even seen the landing craft, while in the Navy the limitations of the various types had been determined only through trials and experiments. It became necessary, therefore, to evolve a technique which would meet the requirements of an amphibious assault on hostile shores. Operational features, such as speed of beaching, best beaching trim, most suitable methods of debarking troops and vehicles, most effective procedure for retraction, loads vs draft for each type of craft, and similar details had to be determined during the training phase. As these elements became known they had to be correlated in order that they might form a basis for the formulation of attack plans. The known characteristics of the beaches in the Gulf of Gela, Sicily, required that some means be developed to bridge the gap between the grounded LST and the shore line. Extensive trials were held to determine the relative merits of Army treadway bridges vs Navy pontoon causeways on beaches having gradients comparable to those in Sicily selected for assault. As a result of these tests, a method of carrying the pontoon causeways to the scene of the invasion, and of erecting them on the enemy shores, had to be devised.

3. As a result of these well carried out investigations, ten LSTs were altered to provide for side-carrying of one complete causeway each. Another LST was converted into an auxiliary aircraft carrier for the transport and launching of the Army Cub spotting planes; still another was modified to carry the GCI equipment essential to the control of Fighter aircraft in the assault; others were provided with means for pumping fuel and water to shore tankage. Facilities were installed in some ships of this type to render them available as hospital ships for the evacuation of casualties. The most far-reaching innovation, however, was the utilization of the six-davit LST. Thirty-six LSTs were thus able to carry six LCVPs in davits, thereby permitting each craft of this type to embark one company of infantry for the initial assault in LCVPs, the ship later landing on the beaches to discharge the vehicle lift. This specially-fitted craft thus had a marked influence upon the development of the shore-to-shore technique.

4. Acceptable methods having been devised, it became necessary to develop detailed plans. Since no "assault scales" or "light scales" of equipment and vehicles had been developed by the Army for this type of movement, and since the loading of craft was limited by beaching draft, the lessons of troop training shaped the pattern of the military and naval plans.

5. Confronting the Commanders was also the task of developing an organization, a plan, and the vast facilities needed to meet the requirements of embarking 130,000 troops and loading 30,000 vehicles and 20,000 tons of ammunition and supplies in the 250 odd craft envisaged in the joint plans. Since such an undertaking had never before been attempted, there was no past experience upon which to draw guidance.

6. The establishment of a "Port of Embarkation" to meet this enormous task meant that the natural facilities of the Bizerta-Tunis area must be greatly augmented. The naval requirements of such a port include:

   1. Sites protected from the open sea.

   2. Minimum interference with normal port operation.

   3. Minimum restrictions on naval operations.

   4. Suitable hydrographic conditions for craft.

   5. Adequate berthing space for craft at loading points.

   6. Fuel and water lines at craft berths.

   7. Adequate lighting for night loading at loading points.

   Military requirements include:

   1. Suitable concentration area for units within ten miles of loading points; facilities for initial waterproofing of vehicles.

   2. Suitable staging areas; facilities for final water-proofing of vehicles.

   3. Suitable assembly area to permit necessary vehicle segregation.

   4. Suitable loading areas with adequate road nets to each loading point.

   In meeting the above requirements new construction had to be held to a minimum due to shortages time, labor and material.

7. Through the co-operative efforts of Commander Landing Craft and Bases, Commanding General 3rd Infantry Division, Commanding General Eastern Base Section SOS, and Commanding Officer 1st Embarkation Group, EBS, the sites were selected, necessary facilities provided, and the tremendous loading job effectively and efficiently carried out.

8. Based on the experience gained in the launching of this, the first shore-to-shore assault, certain conclusions can be drawn regarding the loading and unloading of these types of craft. In the preparation of the Army plan, it is necessary that TQMs exercise the same precise investigations as in loading combatant transports. It is necessary, therefore, that TQMs inspect the ships and craft to be loaded and that they spot location of stanchions, deck fittings, structural interferences, etc., which greatly affect the space available for loading. He must determine the characteristics of the craft, the DIMEnsions of space available for loading, and the exact cubic DIMEnsions and weight of each type of vehicle to be loaded. Templates of deck arrangements and vehicles must be prepared and a template-loading worked out in detail. Suitable clearances must be allowed in this template loading to provide for the actual placing of the vehicle under its own power in the position indicated. From the template preloading, a prestowage diagram must be produced by the TQM, showing the order of loading necessary to obtain the result so diagrammed. Thus loading numbers assigned to the specific vehicles are derived from the diagram which shows a definite space for each particular vehicle and the loading number in the assigned deck space. A list of vehicles must then be prepared showing the precise order of loading, the serial number, Army organization, etc. Similarly, personnel lists and supply lists must be prepared for each ship and craft. Such stowage plans must be passed on by the Navy to determine if the load affects the stability and seaworthiness of the craft and if beaching draft is exceeded.

9. Preparatory to loading it must be determined that waterproofing of vehicles has been completed in the staging area where vehicles have been segregated into craft loads; under no circumstances should waterproofing be deferred until vehicles are stowed in ships and craft. Troops should be transported from the concentration area to the assembly area by truck, and then marched to the craft at the loading points. In the assembly area vehicles should be arranged in the order of loading as shown in the prestowage diagram.

10. The following wrinkles and results are applicable to the specific type of craft:

    LST

    1. Loading

       1. The main deck also should be template loaded with a view to proper location of the maximum number of A.A. guns (up to 40mm caliber) to provide additional A.A. protection to the ship.

       2. In six-davit LSTs the TQMs should not plan to load forward of the elevator ramp (except on the elevator) nor aft of the after intake vents (except on the hatch); vehicles may be loaded on the elevator and light vehicles on the hatch. The capacity of the elevator is 10 tons, hence the heavy vehicles must be stowed in the tank deck,

       3. The space between the ladders at the after end of the tank deck is usually utilized for ships' stowage; it should not be included in the TQM diagram as available for Army gear.

       4. LSTs may be loaded forward of the point where the bulkhead narrows but tracked vehicles should be loaded to be discharged first, ahead of jeeps with trailers and other wheeled vehicles. If bulk stores are loaded they should be so stowed as to be discharged last.

       5. The personnel lift of the LST is dependent upon the dead-load carried and the duration of the voyage. Normally 180 bunks are available for Army personnel. A lift of about 350 may be carried if "hot bunks" are used; the maximum personnel lift is 500 but this should not be attempted except for short hauls because of limited messing and sanitation facilities available. The vehicle lift ranges from 40 to 110, depending on types and sizes of vehicles listed. Maximum stores capacity is 1600 measured tons or 1100 weight tons, but this must be reduced considerably if beaching draft of six feet forward and nine feet six inches aft is not to be exceeded,

       6. Loading times were:

          Personnel	---	1/2 to 11/2 hours.
          Vehicles	---	11/2 hours, if no trailers; 6 hours if a number of trailers.
          Stores	---	15 to 25 tons per hour.

2. Unloading

   1. Three methods of unloading LSTs were employed: (1) over naval pontoon causeways (2) into LCTs, and (3) into DUKWs.

   2. The naval pontoon causeways were brought to the assault area either by side-carry in LSTs or under tow of tugs. Some difficulty was experienced in rigging the pontoons particularly in the CENT area where the surf was high on D day and where considerable shifting of beach sites occurred. Where a current sets along the beach, special care in placing pontoon anchors is indicated. Once pontoons were placed, LSTs were unloaded with dispatch, the average time to unload vehicles being about one hour. Barrage balloons must be placed over both ends of pontoon causeways sited at the beach; pontoons in use by LSTs are special targets for enemy aircraft. A DUKW, manned by the pontoon crew, should be part of the equipment of each LST fitted as a pontoon carrier.

   3. Prior to the operation, sections of the bulwarks of LCTs were made portable to permit side loading from LSTs and unloading. In the operation LCTs were found to be very effective for rapid unloading of LSTs which were unable to either beach themselves, or for which no pontoon causeways were available. By this method two LCTs were placed athwart ships to the ramp of the LST to be unloaded. Vehicles were driven over the ramp across the first LCT and into the outboard LCT. When this craft was fully loaded, a third LCT was brought alongside in its place and the process continued.

   4. DUKWs were employed to a limited extent in the unloading of stores from LSTs; the sole reason they were not more fully employed being that they were diverted by the Army once they reached shore with their first load. DUKWs are particularly suited to the job of carrying stores and their ability to enter the tank deck from sea offers great possibilities in future operations.

   5. LSTs should be employed principally for carrying armor and vehicles; they are not suitable for transporting stores, particularly in such quantities as to increase the draft of the ships in assault forces beyond that favorable for beaching. In this operation LSTs loaded with from 600 to 1300 tons of bulk cargo were beached from six hours to two days, depending upon the availability of labor and transportation for unloading. It became necessary for the ships' personnel to be called away from their gun and other stations to unload these stores until sufficient Prisoners of War were captured and brought down to the beaches and engaged voluntarily in the labor of unloading beached craft. If in future operations LST are to be employed in carrying bulk cargo, these ships should have installed winches and booms or other mechanical means for discharging stores to boats and DUKWs alongside. It is unsound to load LSTs with stores to be unloaded over beaches; this practice extends inordinately the time of beaching, thus subjecting these immobilized ships to bombing and strafing attacks, and reduces the number of craft available for rapid follow-up movements.

LCT

1. Loading

   1. Assault LCTs should be loaded in such manner that tanks and S.P. guns are able to fire during the approach; this requirement should be met even at the partial sacrifice of economy of space. LCTs may be loaded forward of the point where the bulkhead narrows.

   2. No living space is available in LCTs and therefore the troop lift should be restricted to vehicle drivers, or about 35 men, who should be loaded at the latest possible hour. If the trip is of short duration and no vehicles are carried, as many as 105 men can be carried.

   3. Vehicle capacity is 5 medium tanks or 9 21/2 ton trucks plus 2 jeeps. Scorpions are too wide for LCT(5)s. Stores capacity is 200 measured tons or 150 weight tons. Loading time varied from ten minutes to one hour, depending upon the types and numbers of vehicles being loaded, and upon the ability of the drivers concerned. Supplies may be loaded at the rate of 25 tons per hour.

2. Unloading

   1. LCTs have ideal beaching qualities and performed well during the operation. The sea keeping qualities are poor and this craft has the disadvantage of a low speed for

convoy employment. This operation tested the seagoing qualities of the craft severely and recommendations concerning strengthening of these hulls appear herein under "Material and Logistics."
2. The utility of the LCT in unloading LSTs and combat-loaded transports is covered elsewhere in this report. In contemplation of this special employment, the crews of most LCTs were doubled prior to the operation. In spite of these measures, the crews of these craft were subjected to severe operational demands throughout the Sicilian campaign.

LCI(L)

1. Loading

   1. These craft are solely personnel carriers. The capacity is 188 Army spaces. No vehicles or stores can be carried. Personnel should be loaded as near as practicable to the time of departure; loading time is about 20 minutes. Since this craft is designed to be beached, care must be taken not to have on board excessive amounts of provisions, fuel and water. It has good sea keeping qualities and adequate speed for convoy work.

2. Unloading

   1. Providing the proper beaching draft is maintained, this type of craft can be beached without difficulty on most beaches. Recommendations regarding alterations to LCI-(L)s are contained herein under "Material and Logistics" and in separate correspondence.

   2. LCI(L)s were found to be a very useful type of craft. They were useful in transporting personnel from APAs and XAPs to shore. They were utilized as Task Group Commanders' leaders (Regimental Headquarters Ships) though they were cramped by the quantity of communication equipment essential to this function.

   3. As Traffic Control Boats, the LCI(L) is very suitable. Owing to its weight, power, and shallow draft, the LCI(L) is eminently suited for use as a salvage vessel. Recommendations in this particular appear herein under "Beach Party."

Section X -- SHORE PARTY Planning:

1. When the "Montgomery" Plan was adopted by the Commander-in-Chief, Allied Forces, the implications to the Western Task Force were clear. Not only were the beaches inferior for assault but the problem of maintenance reached serious proportions. It was recognized that the beaches south of the Gela River, and particularly those south of the Acate River, introduced unusual obstacles. These beaches were backed by soft sand dunes, with undulations reaching a height of from 40 to 80 feet, for a distance of one-half mile to one mile from the sea. Barren slopes and patches of thick shrub bordered the landward side of these vast dunes. Cart tracks running parallel to the beaches lay between the shore line and the nearest metalled road located from one to three miles from the sea. Exits from the beaches to the hinterland were non-existent.

2. The fact that many beaches were flanked by groups of rocks, and all beaches were bordered to seaward by bars or runnels, presaged difficulties in beaching boats and craft, and in preventing stranding unless unloading was accomplished with dispatch. The locale of the landings thus foretold the need for reinforced Shore Parties, with particular emphasis on road construction units to prepare exits from the beaches, increased motor vehicle transportation to move stores from beaches to inland dumps and to the advancing troops, and finally a greatly increased labor force to quickly unload boats and craft at the beaches. Representations were promptly made to the 7th Army (Force 343) to augment the strength of the Shore Parties in order to meet fully the conditions peculiar to the beaches selected for the landings by United States Forces.

3. The Shore Party organization adopted by the 7th Army consisted of:

   CENT Force	---	40th Combat Engineer Regiment (3 Bns)
   DIME Force	---	531st Engineer Shore Regiment
   JOSS Force	---	36th Combat Engineer Regiment (3 Bns)
   KOOL Force	---	540th Combat Engineer Regiment (2 Bns)

4. The 36th and 540th had landed in North Africa as shore regiments in November 1942; the 40th had arrived in the theater with the 45th Infantry Division and lacked previous shore party experience.

5. The average strength of these Shore Parties (exclusive of the Navy Beach Battalions) was approximately 3900 officers and men. Although the composition varied in detail, the basic organization provided for a Shore Regiment, a Signal Company, an Ordnance Company (MM)(Q), an Ordnance Company (Amm), a Medical Battalion, a Quartermaster Battalion (DUKWs), and a Military Police Company. Augmentation was made for this operation by small detachments of service personnel, such as dump operating details of the various services, railway personnel, gasoline supply troops, and truck companies. The Shore Regiment consisted of slightly over 2,000 men, about 20% of whom were available for unloading boats on the beach.

6. The 7th Army plans governing the employment of Shore Parties provided:

   1. Prior to operations.
      The Commanding Officer 1st Engineer Special Brigade is responsible for:

      1. The organization, training, and equipping of all beach groups incident to the operation until such time as these beach groups have been assigned to and joined the Sub-Task Forces.

      2. For the preparation of detailed plans for the operation of all beach groups (such plans to be coordinated with the indicated staff sections Force 343).

      3. Preparation of adequate plans to take over the operation of all supply activities at a date to be designated by the Commanding General, Force 343.

   2. During operations.

      1. Initially, beach groups will be under direct command of Sub-Task Force Commanders, and will remain under their command until such time as all supply activities are taken over by the Commanding General, Force 343.

      2. (2) When supply activities are taken over by the Commanding General, Force 343, the Commander 1st Engineer Special Brigade will assume command of the beach groups and all non-divisional and non-corps service units thereto attached and such other service units as are necessary and may be attached by the Commanding General, Force 343; and will be responsible for the execution of all supply plans within the theater of operations and emanating from Force 343, including the operation of ports, if any."

7. Thus, the provisions for Shore Parties in the Assault Forces included one Engineer Shore Regiment and two Combat Engineer Regiments, with a Combat Engineer Regiment of two Battalions in the Floating Reserve--the latter to be landed through a prepared beach. Each of these Shore Parties was, during the assault, responsible to the Commander of the Infantry Division to which attached. Later, these Regiments passed to the Commander of the 1st Engineer Special Brigade who was charged with the execution of all supply plans of the 7th Army from the time the Army assumed control of the situation ashore.

Execution of Plan:

8. That the 1st Engineer Brigade performed a magnificent achievement in the execution of Army Supply plans, after the establishment of the 7th Army ashore, is attested to by the supply statistics in the 7th Army's report on the Sicilian campaign. It is the assault phase of the operation, however, which most vitally affects the combat-loaded transports and it was in this phase that the grief occurred.

9. Smooth, efficient operation of the assault beaches was not accomplished until after the departure of the assault transports from the Gulf of Gela. Beginning on D day, from H hour onwards until D plus 3, beach conditions were chaotic. In the JOSS area the beach situation was rectified more promptly. Boats were arriving at all beaches in such numbers that unloading by the Shore Party was at no beach able to keep pace with the arrival of loaded boats. Many vehicles, upon being unloaded from craft, came to an end on enemy mine fields which had not been located and marked by the Shore Party prior to the arrival of motor equipment. The destruction of these vehicles, and the lack of suitable exits and proper markers to show safe routes for traffic through enemy mine fields, soon created widespread confusion as trucks became blocked on the beaches. DUKWs transiting the beach from seaward also came to grief on the beach minefields, due to

beach limits and safe landing points not being adequately marked so as to be seen from seaward by approaching craft. As boats continued to arrive on the beaches and awaited unloading by the Shore Party, the boats were soon swamped or stranded. Eventually the beaches became crowded with miscellaneous personnel standing around idle. In the absence of properly marked staging areas, troops were observed loitering about on the sand dunes awaiting instructions as to movement. Many boats retracted from the regular beaches and moved to the flanks where a clear beach space could be found, and there the boat crews unloaded their own boats. This led to scattering of Army equipment and stores, in some cases placing material on the beaches of adjacent divisions, thus rendering more difficult the task of supplying the advancing troops. Other boats, unable to obtain shore party personnel to unload them at assigned beaches, returned to their transports still loaded. This resulted in many ship commands taking men from gun crews and engineers force and placing them in the boats as working parties in order to unload boats on the beaches. Finally, the unloading situation became so critical that transports organized working parties fr